KATHARINE TRENDACOSTA , Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF); We Stood Up for Access to the Law and Congress Listened: 2024 in Review
"Because you wrote in, because experts sent letters explaining the problems, enough members of Congress recognized that Pro Codes is not uncontroversial. It is not a small deal to allow industry giants to own parts of the law."
Eden I., Denver Public Library Special Collections and Archives; A Farewell to Copyright: International Public Domain Day 2025
"On January 1, 2025, any work published with a copyright notice in the United States in 1929 enters the public domain. Many notable works have been entering the public domain after a 20-year pause beginning in 1999. In recent years, works like The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Disney’s Steamboat Willie have famously entered the public domain.
What is public domain, and why is it important? Public domain simply means that a work is no longer subject to copyright and is available to the public as a whole. The work is free to be copied in its entirety, reused, adapted, or distributed. The public domain is like a sandbox of works the public can use to play and create. ...
Here in Special Collections and Archives, we are concerned with the copyright surrounding both published and unpublished works. Unpublished works in which the creator died before 1955 will be in the public domain at the beginning of 2025. For unpublished works created by a company, the copyright does not expire until 120 years after the work was created. For many of these unpublished works though, the copyright was transferred to Special Collections and Archives when the physical collection was donated."
SAMUEL LONG, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette; Pittsburgh-based medical drama 'The Pitt' comes to Max soon. Here's what you need to know
"Is this just another ‘ER’?
Before production of “The Pitt,” there was talk in 2020 about reviving the hugely popular “ER,” which ended in 2009, Noah Wyle said in an interview with Steve Kmetko on his Still Here Hollywood podcast. Wyle and “ER” executive producer John Wells recruited a few writers from the 1994 drama to bring the reboot to life, but issues between he and the estate of Michael Crichton, “ER’s” creator, put a halt to the idea, according to Deadline.
Instead, Wells started working on “The Pitt.” But issues with the medical drama’s resemblance to “ER” still arose.
A lawsuit filed in August by Michael Crichton’s widow, Sherri Crichton, named Warner Bros Television, Wells, Wyle, Gemmill (“The Pitt’s” showrunner), among others. The suit alleges that, after those named walked away from the “ER” reboot, the concept was instead turned into “The Pitt.”
Deadline described the similarities between “ER” and “The Pitt” as “striking.”
Warner Bros. Television responded to the lawsuit with a motion to dismiss, stating: “’The Pitt’ is a completely different show from ‘ER.’ Plaintiff cannot use Mr. Crichton’s ‘ER’ contract as a speech-stifling weapon to prevent Defendants from ever making a show about emergency medicine.”
Gene Madders , Variety; Warner Bros. Fires Back at Crichton Estate Over Claim ‘The Pitt’ Is an ‘ER’ Reboot: It’s a ‘Completely Different Show’
"Warner Bros. is seeking to throw out a lawsuit filed by the estate of Michael Crichton, which argued that the forthcoming Max series “The Pitt” is an unauthorized reboot of “ER.”"
Kate Mosse, Financial Times; AI's assault on our intellectual property must be stopped
"Imagine my dismay, therefore, to discover that those 15 years of dreaming, researching, planning, writing, rewriting, editing, visiting libraries and archives, translating Occitan texts, hunting down original 13th-century documents, becoming an expert in Catharsis, apparently counts for nothing. Labyrinth is just one of several of my novels that have been scraped by Meta's large language model. This has been done without my consent, without remuneration, without even notification. This is theft...
AI companies present creators as being against change. We are not. Every artist I know is already engaging with AI in one way or another. But a distinction needs to be made between AI that can be used in brilliant ways -- for example, medical diagnosis -- and the foundations of AI models, where companies are essentially stealing creatives' work for their own profit. We should not forget that the AI companies rely on creators to build their models. Without strong copyright law that ensures creators can earn a living, AI companies will lack the high-quality material that is essential for their future growth."
, Forbes ; Overcoming AI’s Nagging Trust And Ethics Issues
"Trust and ethics in AI is what is making business leaders nervous. For example, at least 72% of executives responding to a recent surveyfrom the IBM Institute for Business Value say they “are willing to forgo generative AI benefits due to ethical concerns.” In addition, more than half (56%) indicate they are delaying major investments in generative AI until there is clarity on AI standards and regulations...
"Today, guardrails are a growing area of practice for the AI community given the stochastic nature of these models,” said Ross. “Guardrails can be employed for virtually any area of decisioning, from examining bias to preventing the leakage of sensitive data."...
The situation is not likely to change soon, Jeremy Rambarran, professor at Touro University Graduate School, pointed out. “Although the output that's being generated may be unique, depending on how the output is being presented, there's always a chance that part of the results may not be entirely accurate. This will eventually change down the road as algorithms are enhanced and could eventually be updated in an automated manner.”...
How can AI be best directed to be ethical and trustworthy? Compliance requirements, of course, will be a major driver of AI trust in the future, said Rambarran. “We need to ensure that AI-driven processes comply with ethical guidelines, legal regulations, and industry standards. Humans should be aware of the ethical implications of AI decisions and be ready to intervene when ethical concerns arise.”
STEPHANA OCNEANU , Pittsburgh Post-Gazette; Eat’n Park sends another cease-and-desist over Smiley Cookie branding
"Eat’n Park is set on protecting its iconic Smiley Cookies brand this holiday season.
Alleging trademark infringement, the Homestead-based restaurant chain has sent a cease and desist letter to McArthur’s Bakery in St. Louis for producing a similar smiling cookie business...
EPR Holdings, Inc., tied to the Eat’n Park Restaurants, registered the “Smiley” word trademark in 2007. The accompanying smiley face design used on its cookies and pancakes was registered two years prior. Eat’n Park has sold (and given away) the cookie since the mid 1980s.
“We are not seeking to profit from an agreement with McArthur’s Bakery or to stop their good work; we simply want to do what’s required by the law to uphold our trademarks,” a spokesperson for Eat’n Park told the Post-Gazette in an email...
Should the bakery continue to ignore communication from Eat’n Park, the situation may be taken to court, as has occurred in the past."
Dan Jasnow of ArentFox Schiff LLP - AI Law Blog, The National Law Review; SDNY Order Renews Possibility of Digital Millenium Copyright Act as Legal Recourse for News Organizations in the Age of AI
"Key Takeaway: The Intercept’s Case Against OpenAI Will Clarify the Future of DMCA Protection Against AI Developers
Until now, other DMCA claims against AI developers have largely failed — most of these cases have not proceeded past the motion-to-dismiss stage — but the order allowing The Intercept’s claim to proceed renews the possibility that the DMCA may be a viable claim against AI developers. For rights holders, 1202(b) provides distinct causes of action against AI developers with different evidentiary requirements than traditional copyright infringement claims. For developers, 1202(b) is another legal risk to be managed, particularly in the wake of the order in The Intercept case."
CORYNNE MCSHERRY, Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) ; While the Court Fights Over AI and Copyright Continue, Congress and States Focus On Digital Replicas: 2024 in Review
"These state laws are a done deal, so we’ll just have to see how they play out. At the federal level, however, we still have a chance to steer policymakers in the right direction.
We get it–everyone should be able to prevent unfair and deceptive commercial exploitation of their personas. But expanded property rights are not the way to do it. If Congress really wants to protect performers and ordinary people from deceptive or exploitative uses of their images and voice, it should take a precise, careful and practical approach that avoids potential collateral damage to free expression, competition, and innovation."
Joe McKendrick, ZDNet ; Why ethics is becoming AI's biggest challenge
"Many of the technical issues associated with artificial intelligence have been resolved, but the hard work surrounding AI ethics is now coming to the forefront. This is proving even more challenging than addressing technology issues.
The challenge for development teams at this stage is "to recognize that creating ethical AI is not strictly a technical problem but a socio-technical problem," said Phaedra Boinodiris, global leader for trustworthy AI at IBM Consulting, in a recent podcast. This means extending AI oversight beyond IT and data management teams across organizations.
To build responsibly curated AI models, "you need a team composed of more than just data scientists," Boinodiris said. "For decades, we've been communicating that those who don't have traditional domain expertise don't belong in the room. That's a huge misstep."
"It's also notable that well-curated AI models "are also more accurate models," she added. To achieve this, "the team designing the model should be multidisciplinary rather than siloed." The ideal AI team should include "linguistics and philosophy experts, parents, young people, everyday people with different life experiences from different socio-economic backgrounds," she urged. "The wider the variety, the better." Team members are needed to weigh in on the following types of questions:
MAGGIE HARRISON DUPRÉ , Futurism; Character.AI Confirms Mass Deletion of Fandom Characters, Says They're Not Coming Back
"The embattled AI companion company Character.AI confirmed to Futurism that it removed a large number of characters from its platform, citing its adherence to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DCMA) and copyright law, but failing to say whether the deletions were proactive or in response to requests from the holders of the characters' intellectual property rights...
That's not surprising: Character.AI is currently facing a lawsuit brought by the family of a 14-year-old teenager in Florida who died by suicide after forming an intense relationship with a Daenerys Targaryen chatbot on its platform...
It's been a bad few months for Character.AI. In October, shortly before the recent lawsuit was filed, it was revealed that someone had created a chatbot based on a murdered teenager without consent from the slain teen's family. (The character was removed and Character.AI apologized, as AdWeek first reported.) And in recent weeks, we've reported on disturbing hordes of suicide, pedophilia, and eating disorder-themed chatbots hosted by the platform, all of which were freely accessible to Character.AI users of all ages."
"Fun fact: The character Buck Rogers "first appeared in 1929 and is public domain in 2025, but technically the futuristic space hero has already been copyright-free for decades, despite claims that he was still copyrighted," Jenkins writes.
Josh Harlan, Wall Street Journal; The AI Boom May Be Too Good to Be True
"Investors rushing to capitalize on artificial intelligence have focused on the technology—the capabilities of new models, the potential of generative tools, and the scale of processing power to sustain it all. What too many ignore is the evolving legal structure surrounding the technology, which will ultimately shape the economics of AI. The core question is: Who controls the value that AI produces? The answer depends on whether AI companies must compensate rights holders for using their data to train AI models and whether AI creations can themselves enjoy copyright or patent protections.
The current landscape of AI law is rife with uncertainty...How these cases are decided will determine whether AI developers can harvest publicly available data or must license the content used to train their models."
Blake Brittain, Reuters ; Tech companies face tough AI copyright questions in 2025
"The new year may bring pivotal developments in a series of copyright lawsuits that could shape the future business of artificial intelligence.
Nicola Jones, Nature; The AI revolution is running out of data. What can researchers do?
"A prominent study1 made headlines this year by putting a number on this problem: researchers at Epoch AI, a virtual research institute, projected that, by around 2028, the typical size of data set used to train an AI model will reach the same size as the total estimated stock of public online text. In other words, AI is likely to run out of training data in about four years’ time (see ‘Running out of data’). At the same time, data owners — such as newspaper publishers — are starting to crack down on how their content can be used, tightening access even more. That’s causing a crisis in the size of the ‘data commons’, says Shayne Longpre, an AI researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge who leads the Data Provenance Initiative, a grass-roots organization that conducts audits of AI data sets...
Several lawsuits are now under way attempting to win compensation for the providers of data being used in AI training. In December 2023, The New York Times sued OpenAI and its partner Microsoft for copyright infringement; in April this year, eight newspapers owned by Alden Global Capital in New York City jointly filed a similar lawsuit. The counterargument is that an AI should be allowed to read and learn from online content in the same way as a person, and that this constitutes fair use of the material. OpenAI has said publicly that it thinks The New York Times lawsuit is “without merit”.
If courts uphold the idea that content providers deserve financial compensation, it will make it harder for both AI developers and researchers to get what they need — including academics, who don’t have deep pockets. “Academics will be most hit by these deals,” says Longpre. “There are many, very pro-social, pro-democratic benefits of having an open web,” he adds."
Scott Young , Harvard Law Today; Harvard’s Library Innovation Lab launches Institutional Data Initiative
"At the Institutional Data Initiative (IDI), a new program hosted within the Harvard Law School Library, efforts are already underway to expand and enhance the data resources available for AI training. At the initiative’s public launch on Dec. 12, Library Innovation Lab faculty director, Jonathan Zittrain ’95, and IDI executive director, Greg Leppert, announced plans to expand the availability of public domain data from knowledge institutions — including the text of nearly one million books scanned at Harvard Library — to train AI models...
Harvard Law Today: What is the Institutional Data Initiative?
Greg Leppert: Our work at the Institutional Data Initiative is focused on finding ways to improve the accessibility of institutional data for all uses, artificial intelligence among them. Harvard Law School Library is a tremendous repository of public domain books, briefs, research papers, and so on. Regardless of how this information was initially memorialized — hardcover, softcover, parchment, etc. — a considerable amount has been converted into digital form. At the IDI, we are working to ensure these large data sets of public domain works, like the ones from the Law School library that comprise the Caselaw Access Project, are made open and accessible, especially for AI training. Harvard is not alone in terms of the scale and quality of its data; similar sets exist throughout our academic institutions and public libraries. AI systems are only as diverse as the data on which they’re trained, and these public domain data sets ought to be part of a healthy diet for future AI training.
HLT: What problem is the Institutional Data Initiative working to solve?
Leppert: As it stands, the data being used to train AI is often limited in terms of scale, scope, quality, and integrity. Various groups and perspectives are massively underrepresented in the data currently being used to train AI. As things stand, outliers will not be served by AI as well as they should be, and otherwise could be, by the inclusion of that underrepresented data. The country of Iceland, for example, undertook a national, government-led effort to make materials from their national libraries available for AI applications. That is because they were seriously concerned the Icelandic language and culture would not be represented in AI models. We are also working towards reaffirming Harvard, and other institutions, as the stewards of their collections. The proliferation of training sets based on public domain materials has been encouraging to see, but it’s important that this doesn’t leave the material vulnerable to critical omissions or alterations. For centuries, knowledge institutions have served as stewards of information for the purpose of promoting the public good and furthering the representation of diverse ideas, cultural groups, and ways of seeing the world. So, we believe these institutions are the exact kind of sources for AI training data if we want to optimize its ability to serve humanity. As it stands today, there is significant room for improvement."
Ashley Brown, HBCU Buzz; Pair of HBCUs Join Patent and Trademark Resource Centers Network
"In a significant development for intellectual property access in underserved areas, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has officially designated Tuskegee University and the University of the Virgin Islands as Patent and Trademark Resource Centers. This brings the total number of PTRCs across the nation and its territories to 100. These institutions are now among seven Historically Black Colleges and Universities to hold this designation."
William J. Broad, The New York Times; How Hallucinatory A.I. Helps Science Dream Up Big Breakthroughs
"In the universe of science, however, innovators are finding that A.I. hallucinations can be remarkably useful. The smart machines, it turns out, are dreaming up riots of unrealities that help scientists track cancer, design drugs, invent medical devices, uncover weather phenomena and even win the Nobel Prize.
“The public thinks it’s all bad,” said Amy McGovern, a computer scientist who directs a federal A.I. institute. “But it’s actually giving scientists new ideas. It’s giving them the chance to explore ideas they might not have thought about otherwise.”
The public image of science is coolly analytic. Less visibly, the early stages of discovery can teem with hunches and wild guesswork. “Anything goes” is how Paul Feyerabend, a philosopher of science, once characterized the free-for-all.
Now, A.I. hallucinations are reinvigorating the creative side of science. They speed the process by which scientists and inventors dream up new ideas and test them to see if reality concurs. It’s the scientific method — only supercharged. What once took years can now be done in days, hours and minutes. In some cases, the accelerated cycles of inquiry help scientists open new frontiers."
Rachel Treisman, NPR; Popeye, Tintin and more will enter the public domain in the new year
"The main thing they have in common is their age — under U.S. copyright law, their terms all expire after 95 years. All of the works entering the public domain next year are from 1929, except for sound recordings, which (because they are covered by a different law) come from 1924.
"Copyright's awesome … but the fact that rights eventually expire, that's a good thing, too, because that's the wellspring for creativity," says Jennifer Jenkins, the director of Duke's Center for the Study of the Public Domain, which spends months poring over records to compile the most famous examples.
Once in the public domain, these works become fodder for remakes, spinoffs and other adaptations."
Matt Levin, Marketplace; A farewell to copyright protection for Hemingway, Hammett — and Popeye
"Let’s say you’re a hip-hop artist and for whatever reason, you want to spit bars over a sample of the jazz standard “Everybody Loves My Baby” with Louis Armstrong on cornet.
In 2024, that’s a hassle. “You’ve got to clear the sound recording copyright, and that is easier said than done,” explained Jennifer Jenkins, a professor at Duke Law School. “You have to figure out who owns it. You’ve got to find them. You’ve got to get them to respond to you, and you’ve got to negotiate a deal.”
But once the ball drops at midnight Jan. 1, you can remix that Satchmo recording to your heart’s content, no contracts required."
Gavin Petrone , 90.5 WESA; Pittsburgh has big ideas. One professor is documenting them.
"Heinz ketchup. Mister Rogers’ “It’s a Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood.” Smiley cookies.
Pittsburgh professor and author Mike Madison has chronicled these unmistakably Pittsburgh things as part of his Intellectual Property Hall of Fame. He began the project in 2020 during the pandemic — just for fun.
“I really wanted to dig into Pittsburgh history, and make sure that people who might have been more celebrated at an earlier point in time get brought forward, and identified, and celebrated for their careers and their contributions,” he said.
“We've got the boatloads of amazingly creative people in Pittsburgh going back a hundred years. And if my little website can bring just a smidgen of attention to some of that, then I'm happy.”
A University of Pittsburgh professor, Madison focuses on the ways that institutions create and distribute information. In the classroom, topics include intellectual property law and commercial law. He’s the author of more than 60 journal articles and book chapters, and a co-editor of several books.
Tradition is deeply rooted in Pittsburgh’s culture — and that’s evident through the enduring popularity in uniquely Pittsburgh ideas, he said."
Jennifer Jenkins and James Boyle
Directors, Duke Center for the Study of the Public Domain"Please note that this site is only about US law; the copyright terms in other countries are different.[1]
On January 1, 2025, thousands of copyrighted works from 1929 will enter the US public domain, along with sound recordings from 1924. They will be free for all to copy, share, and build upon.[2] 2025 marks a milestone: all of the books, films, songs, and art published in the 1920s will now be public domain. The literary highlights from 1929 include The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner, A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway, and A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf. In film, Mickey Mouse speaks his first words, the Marx Brothers star in their first feature film, and legendary directors from Alfred Hitchcock to John Ford made their first sound films. From comic strips, the original Popeye and Tintin characters will enter the public domain. Among the newly public domain compositions are Gershwin’s An American in Paris, Ravel’s Bolero, Fats Waller’s Ain’t Misbehavin’, and the musical number Singin’ in the Rain. Below is just a handful of the works that will be in the US public domain in 2025.[3] To find more material from 1929, you can visit the Catalogue of Copyright Entries.
The title of Faulkner’s novel was itself taken from a public domain work, Shakespeare’s Macbeth, and its lament over the seeming meaningless of life. “Life…is a tale / Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing.” The Sound and the Fury was published on October 7, 1929, on the eve of the Great Depression."
Adam Killick , CBC Radio; How Indigenous traditional knowledge is improving our understanding of aurora borealis
"While modern science explains the mechanism of the aurora borealis, members of First Nation, Inuit and Métis communities say that their traditional knowledge, which goes back thousands of years, can help explain its meaning — in mythology, legend and even weather forecasting.
The two ways of knowing can be complementary, said Jennifer Howse, an education specialist at the Rothney Astrophysical Observatory, just north of Calgary. Howse is also a member of the Métis Nation of Alberta."
Kate Knibbs, Wired; Every AI Copyright Lawsuit in the US, Visualized
"WIRED is keeping close tabs on how each of these lawsuits unfold. We’ve created visualizations to help you track and contextualize which companies and rights holders are involved, where the cases have been filed, what they’re alleging, and everything else you need to know."
David S. Gooder , United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO); Trademark Center—a new way to apply to register your trademark
"We recently shared that on January 18, 2025, Trademark Center will become the only way to apply for a trademark registration. While you can still submit applications in the Trademark Electronic Application System (TEAS) until then, I invite you to join the thousands of customers who have already tried Trademark Center. I think you’ll appreciate some of the updates and new capabilities as you get familiar with the system.
Modernizing our systems has been a key focus at the USPTO, and it’s one of the goals of our 2022-26 strategic plan to ensure all trademark applicants and owners have the best experience possible when doing business with our agency. One way we're doing this is through our open beta rollout of Trademark Center, which was launched this past summer. You can now draft and file your trademark application in this new system at trademarkcenter.uspto.gov, and we’ve recently added some exciting new features. Over the next few years, it will become the single platform for not only your trademark registration needs but searching and other trademark services."
Thonnia Lee , Tuskegee University; Tuskegee University Alumna Helps Push Through Patent and Trademark Resource Center Designation
"Thanks to the dedication of Tuskegee University alumna Charesse Evans, Tuskegee University Libraries received official designation as a Patent and Trademark Resource Center (PTRC) by the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), the federal agency responsible for protecting inventions, creative designs, and other innovations.
This means Tuskegee University can now provide trademark and patent assistance through our library staff.
“As a patent attorney and intellectual property professional with over two decades of experience, I am incredibly proud to have played a role in helping Tuskegee University achieve official designation as a Patent and Trademark Resource Center (PTRC),” said Evans, a Senior Advisor to Under Secretary of Commerce for Intellectual Property and Director of the USPTO. “This designation holds particular significance for me, both personally and professionally. Throughout my career, I have collaborated with numerous institutions across the country to support and protect intellectual property. It is an absolute honor to witness my alma mater become an integral part of this essential ecosystem that nurtures the brilliant minds being shaped at the university and within the surrounding community.”...
The Tuskegee University PTRC will support residents who want to patent an invention or register a trademark. The university team is trained to help inventors and small businesses find the information they need to protect their intellectual property."
Daniel J. Lass of Robinson & Cole LLP , The National Law Review; Conclusion of Copyright Office’s Report on Artificial Intelligence Delayed Until 2025
"This week, Director Shira Perlmutter indicated that the publication of part two of the U.S. Copyright Office’s three-part report on copyright issues raised by artificial intelligence (AI) would be further delayed. In her letter to the ranking members of the Senate Subcommittee on Intellectual Property and the House Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property, and the Internet, Director Perlmutter indicated that although substantial progress had been made, the Office will not publish part two by the end of 2024 and now expects publication to occur in early 2025.
Part two of the report will describe the copyrightability of generative AI outputs and will build on part one of the report on digital replicas. Following the publication of part two, Director Perlmutter indicated that the third and final part would be published in the first quarter of 2025. Part three will relate to “analyzing the legal issues related to the ingestion of copyrighted works to train AI models, including licensing considerations and the allocation of potential liability.”"
, Communications Earth & Environment
"Abstract
Indigenous and traditional knowledge of the natural environment is crucial for policymakers and community leaders in Vanuatu. Here, we employ a mixed-methods approach to collect data from East, North, and West Area councils in Ambae Island, Vanuatu, and investigate the integration of science and local indicators to predict the presence of ciguatera fish poisoning to enhance community responses to health risk management. We found fourteen local indicators for the ciguatera outbreak. We also identified uses of scientific information from various sources to verify their Indigenous and Traditional Knowledge before making decisions. This led to the development of ‘The Gigila Framework’ to integrate Indigenous and Traditional Knowledge with science. We also found that both community and government agencies recognize the importance of incorporating community roles into the overall early warning system for ciguatera fish poisoning in Vanuatu. Our study highlights the need for government agencies to collaborate with local communities to evaluate and develop the best practices that enable the integration of Indigenous and Traditional Knowledge with science to improve community responses to health risk management in Vanuatu."
"In a programme that will “weave the knowledge of Australia’s Traditional Owners” with the western sciences, the Institute has since embarked on a new partnership programme that will both empower and inform Traditional Owners and members of Indigenous communities with the practical science behind coral reef management and restoration, while learning about cultural and spiritual connections to these environments in return.
“Australia’s Traditional Owners are the first scientists, farmers, engineers, innovators, and conservationists,” said Anna Marsden, Great Barrier Reef Foundation managing director. “They have successfully nurtured and protected their environment through changing seasons and climates, guided by Traditional Knowledge and customs passed down through generations.
“Weaving this knowledge with western science will help overcome key challenges to protecting our Reef – scaling reef restoration efforts.”"
